Rocket Design: Some Things Never Change
The design of rockets has evolved significantly over the past half-century, but according to Adam Gilmour, CEO of Gilmour Space Technologies, the fundamental principles have remained largely unchanged. “The core concepts of rockets haven’t really changed in the last 70 years,” he said. “No one’s come up with a warp-drive or an anti-gravity drive or anything like that.”
The Saturn V rocket, one of NASA’s most iconic creations, was used for all Apollo missions and stood at an impressive 111 meters tall. It utilized a single large rocket to launch, whereas during the Space Shuttle era, NASA switched to using three rocket engines. The Artemis missions are following a similar design with the Space Launch System (SLS), which uses one main rocket along with two booster rockets on either side.
Interestingly, Artemis II is using components that have already been to space on previous shuttle missions. This includes the casing on the booster rockets and the four engines at the bottom of the main rocket, which are repurposed space shuttle engines. The fuel used also remains remarkably similar, as hydrogen and oxygen continue to offer the best performance, despite extensive research into other combinations in the 50s, 60s, and 70s.
Computing Power: From Apollo to Artemis
One of the most critical components of the original Apollo missions was the spacecraft’s digital computer and the meticulously hand-coded software that made the flights possible. The Apollo Guidance Computer was capable of handling a surprising amount of piloting tasks, including guidance, navigation, and control. “They went all the way to the Moon and back with a computer that had a hundredth or a thousandth of the capability of your phone,” Mr Gilmour said.
The Apollo Guidance Computer had only 74 kilobytes of memory and about 4Kb of RAM. Despite its limitations, it was able to perform essential functions. However, there were occasional issues, such as during the Apollo 8 mission when astronaut Jim Lovell entered incorrect code into the guidance computer. He had to use the onboard sextant to determine the spacecraft’s location and manually re-enter it into the system.
Today, the computers on board the Artemis mission are vastly more powerful. The Command and Data Handling Console on Orion can process data 20,000 times faster than Apollo’s and has 128,000 times more memory. However, the real nerve centre of the operation remains the same: the Christopher C Kraft Jr Mission Control Center, known as Houston, which has been in the same building at the Johnson Space Center since 1965.
A Giant Leap for Toilets
Toilet facilities during the Apollo era were rudimentary, with astronauts using urine collection bags and plastic bags for feces. There was even an infamous incident on the Apollo 10 mission where a “turd” floated through the air. The first space toilet was introduced on Russia’s Soyuz spacecraft in 1967, but it was uncomfortable and rarely used.
Today, toilets have become much more sophisticated, with the Universal Waste Management System aboard the Orion spacecraft. This system is similar to the one on the International Space Station and resembles a high-tech camp toilet. It uses suction to manage waste in microgravity and accommodates both male and female anatomy. However, even the most advanced systems can have issues — the Artemis II crew experienced a toilet problem after launch, which has since been resolved.
Getting Back to Earth
Returning to Earth has always been one of the most physically demanding parts of a space mission. The Orion spacecraft is equipped with a heat shield made from Avcoat, a material that has been re-engineered from the one used in the Apollo missions. However, some experts have raised concerns about potential issues with the new version due to slight changes in the material and its application.
The Apollo spacecraft re-entered Earth’s atmosphere at around 35,000 km/h, while the Artemis II spacecraft will return at a faster speed of approximately 40,000 km/h, making it the fastest re-entry for a crewed mission. To avoid any issues with the heat shield, the “skip-entry” maneuver used during Artemis I has been replaced with a more direct re-entry path.
Unlike the Apollo astronauts, who had to undergo a 21-day quarantine upon returning, the Artemis II crew won’t face the same restrictions. Back in 1969, the Apollo 11 astronauts spent a week in a converted Airstream caravan before moving to a specially designed quarantine complex. They found the conditions oppressive, with Michael Collins famously saying, “I want out.” The reason for the strict measures was the fear of lunar pathogens, although no such risks were ever confirmed.
Stay up-to-date on the Artemis II mission with the podcast Science Friction: Artemis Explained from ABC Radio National.
